<text>American University, Algeria: A Country Study, 4th ed. (1983); Assassi, L., Non-Alignment and Algerian Foreign Policy (1988); Bennoune, M., The Making of Contemporary Algeria, 1830-1987 (1988); Entelis, J. P., Algeria: The Revolution Institutionalized (1986); Heggoy, A. A., The French Conquest of Algeria (1986); Knauss, P. P., The Persistence of Patriarchy: Class, Gender, and Ideology in 20th Century Algeria (1987); Ottoway, David and Marina, Algeria: The Politics of a Socialist Revolution (1970); Wolf, John B., The Barbary Coast: Algiers Under the Turks (1979; repr. 1982).</text>
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<text><span class="style1">ntil the 1500s, Algeria's history was closely linked to that of neighboring Tunisia and Morocco. The region's earliest inhabitants were the Berbers, whose neolithic hunting and herding activities are graphically depicted in cave drawings at </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">TASILI N'AJJER</a></span><span class="style1">. Phoenician traders arrived on the Algerian coast in the 12th century BC. The Phoenician city of </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">CARTHAGE</a></span><span class="style1">, in present-day Tunisia, eventually dominated the entire western Mediterranean, including the coast of what is now Algeria, which had become known as </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">NUMIDIA</a></span><span class="style1">. Northern Algeria was united under the Numidian tribal leader </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">MASINISSA</a></span><span class="style1"> after he supported Rome in the Second Punic War (218-201 BC). Carthage's destruction in 146 BC and the defeat of Numidia's King </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">JUGURTHA</a></span><span class="style1"> in 105 BC left Rome in control of the Maghrib, although Berber tribes continued to control the mountains and deserts of the interior. The prosperity of northern Algeria under Roman rule is evident from the ruins of thriving agricultural communities such as </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">TIMGAD</a></span><span class="style1">. Christianity flourished; Algerian-born Saint </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">AUGUSTINE</a></span><span class="style1"> (AD 354-430), one of the most influential of all Christian thinkers, was bishop of Hippo (now Annaba). Invasions by VANDALS ended Roman rule in the 5th century, although most of the area remained under Berber control. In the early 6th century the </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">BYZANTINES</a></span><span class="style1"> extended their influence as far west as present-day Algiers. The Arabs forced the Byzantines from North Africa in the 7th and 8th centuries, and the Maghrib became part of the </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">UMAYYAD</a></span><span class="style1"> caliphate. The Berbers converted to Islam but resisted Arab dominance. From the 10th to the 13th centuries, Algeria was ruled by a series of Muslim dynasties that originated in the Maghrib, including the </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">FATIMIDS</a></span><span class="style1">, and </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">ALMORAVIDS</a></span><span class="style1">, and the </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">ALMOHADS</a></span><span class="style1">. The particularly prosperous Almohad period united North Africa and Spain under Muslim rule. In the late 15th century Christian Spain, having expelled the Muslims from the Iberian peninsula, captured several Algerian ports. They were forced off the coast with Turkish assistance, and Algeria became nominally part of the </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">OTTOMAN EMPIRE</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1518. The local rulers of the North African </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">BARBARY STATES</a></span><span class="style1"> had a high degree of autonomy. Piracy against European shipping led to British and American intervention in the early 19th century. This was followed in 1830 by a French invasion and the deposition of the dey (regent) of Algiers. The French campaign to conquer northern Algeria ended in 1847 with the defeat of Algerian leader Abd al-qadir (c. 1807-83). The French gradually extended their influence southward, despite fierce local resistance, until Algeria's current boundaries were drawn in 1902. France had encouraged European colonization of Algeria from about 1834; the area was declared an integral part of France in 1848. The European settlers confiscated Muslim land and created a flourishing colonial society removed from the Muslim majority. Muslims had almost no political rights and did not share in colonial prosperity. Organized Algerian nationalist movements arose after World War I under the leadership of Messali Hadj, who desired complete independence, and the moderate Ferhat Abbas, who wanted France to live up to its assimilationist ideals. European settlers, however, bitterly resisted any efforts to grant political and economic equality to the Muslims. Algeria was under Vichy administration during the early years of World War II. After 1942, it served as a major base for the Allied North Africa campaign; Algiers was the capital of free France until the liberation of Paris. The nationalist hopes aroused during the war were not met, and thousands of Muslims perished in bloody reprisals after 88 Frenchmen were massacred during a disorderly 1945 nationalist demonstration at Setif. Although the French government granted Muslims the vote on a separate electoral roll in 1947, demands for full political equality and further reform were opposed by the European colonists. The nationalist movement gained support and became increasingly radicalized. In 1954 the FLN proclaimed a war of liberation, launching terrorist attacks against the French in both Algeria and France. The long Algerian War led to the fall of the Fourth Republic and the return to power of Charles </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">DE GAULLE</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1958. On July 3, 1962, de Gaulle finally proclaimed Algeria's independence. After a power struggle within the FLN, Ahmed </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">BEN BELLA</a></span><span class="style1"> became Algeria's first president in 1963. Confronting a society devastated by war and the subsequent flight of European capital and skilled workers, ben Bella nationalized abandoned colonial holdings and announced his support of national liberation movements in other colonial lands. Conflict with Morocco, economic problems, and ben Bella's dictatorial personality provoked a bloodless coup (1965) led by Houari </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">BOUMEDIENNE</a></span><span class="style1">. Boumedienne maintained Algeria's image as an avant-garde Third World state and began its support of Polisario demands for an independent </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">WESTERN SAHARA</a></span><span class="style1">. His nationalization of French oil and natural gas concessions in 1971 symbolized Algeria's economic liberation, although his government continued to accept French aid. </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">CHADLI BENJEDID</a></span><span class="style1">, who became president in 1979 after the death of Boumedienne and was reelected in 1984 and 1988, maintained Algeria's prominence as a speaker for the Third World. He also pursued the goal of a "Greater," or unified, Maghrib; Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Mauritania, and Morocco established the Arab Maghrib Union in 1989. In 1988, Algeria restored diplomatic ties with Egypt and Morocco and sought international mediation of the war in Western Sahara. Benjedid liberalized economic policies somewhat, but high unemployment, inflation, and corruption sparked massive unrest in October 1988. He then instituted reforms ending the commitment to socialism and the FLN's monopoly of power, dismissing Prime Minister Kasdi Merbah in 1989 when he failed to move quickly enough in implementing the reforms. A new constitution approved on Feb. 23, 1989, led the way to a multiparty system. In June 1990, the Islamic Salvation Front, which wishes to turn the country into an Islamic republic, won numerous offices in provincial and municipal elections, the first multiparty elections since Algeria gained independence. The ruling National Liberation Front then called for an alliance of political parties to oppose the Islamic fundamentalists. On May 25, 1991, the Islamic Front began a general strike and widespread public protests broke out by Muslim fundamentalists. President Chadli Benjedid declared a state of emergency on June 5 and postponed scheduled multiparty elections. </span></text>
<text>The National Liberation Front (FLN from its French name) led Algeria to independence and is the country's only legal political party until 1989. The 1963 constitution was suspended following a military coup in 1965. A 1976 constitution provided for a unicameral National Assembly and a powerful president. A new National Charter, approved in 1986, increased the role of the private sector and declared socialism and Islam the twin pillars of the state. In November 1988, after a wave of antigovernment protests, voters overwhelmingly approved constitutional changes increasing the power of the prime minister, who was made responsible to the legislature, and reducing the role of the FLN. In February 1989 they approved a new constitution that paved the way for the July 1989 legalization of a multi-party system. Local government is based on wilayat; each has a governor and an elected legislature.</text>
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<text>The French left an impressive infrastructure, which the Algerians have maintained and expanded. The excellent road system now includes a Trans-Saharan highway connecting northern Algeria with the far south, and there are plans to increase the rail network. Air Algeria, the national airline, operates internationally. Major ports include Oran, Arzew, Beaia, Skikda, and Annaba. Algeria has a fleet of tankers and ferry service to France. Although France remains the primary trading partner, Algeria has successfully diversified its markets. A trans-Mediterranean pipeline, completed in 1983, transports natural gas to Italy and other European markets; pipelines to Libya and Morocco are to be built. Petroleum and natural gas are exported to the United States and other nations.</text>
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<text>Despite the proclaimed 1971 "Agrarian Revolution," agricultural production increased only 0.2% between 1970 and 1979, and Algeria must still import 60% of its food. To boost food production and reduce unemployment, development plans since 1980 have invested heavily in agriculture and many state controls have been relaxed. Wine remains an important export. The government, however, has uprooted many vineyards (a cultural contradiction under Islam, which prohibits the consumption of alcohol) and replaced them with plantings of cereal crops. Other commercial crops are citrus fruits, vegetables, olives, figs, and dates. Livestock raising (mainly sheep and goats) provides a livelihood for nomads in sparsely settled semiarid areas.</text>
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<text>Petroleum and natural gas provide 98% of Algeria's export earnings, despite the decline of world energy prices in the 1980s. A huge industrial "estate" extends along the coast from Oran to Constantine and includes refineries, steel mills, liquefaction plants (for natural gas), and oil pipelines. Other industries include chemical and fertilizer plants; cement works; car, truck, and tractor factories; and paper, textile, and agricultural processing plants. In 1986, Algeria produced 12.7 million kW h of electricity.</text>
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<text>Algeria was once mainly an agricultural country with a commercial sector that produced wine, citrus fruits, and vegetables for the European, and particularly the French, market. Industrial development was minor because most manufactured goods were imported from metropolitan France. The discovery of Saharan petroleum and natural gas in the mid-1950s accelerated French investment and initiated the ongoing transformation of the Algerian economy. Almost all foreign enterprises were nationalized after independence, including (in 1971) French oil and natural gas interests. The economy remains largely under government control, despite the return of some land and businesses to private hands in the 1980s, and Algeria is dependent on oil and gas exports to finance internal development. Because state planning has generally been capital rather than labor intensive, there is severe underemployment and unemployment in some areas. Since 1980, however, increased attention has been paid to agriculture, light industry, and the provision of human services. The 1984-89 Five-Year Plan encouraged private and foreign investment.</text>
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<text>The government has placed a high priority on education to produce technically trained managers and workers for its industries and to reduce illiteracy (90% at independence). Nearly 30% of the budget is allocated to education. Arabic is the language of instruction in primary schools, attended by 84% of Algerian children. French is often used in institutions of higher education. Algerians have been guaranteed free medical care since 1974, although the medical system is still handicapped by a shortage of doctors and facilities. Particular emphasis is placed on preventive medicine.</text>
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<text><span class="style1">ore than 90% of the population live in the north, and all major cities are located in this region. According to the 1987 census, the most populous cities in addition to Algiers are </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">ORAN</a></span><span class="style1"> (590,000), </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">CONSTANTINE</a></span><span class="style1"> (438,000), and Annaba (310,000). Algeria's birthrate is extremely high; 70% of the population are under the age of 24. The government is hardpressed to provide housing, consumer goods, services, and employment for the rapidly growing population; efforts to promote birth control and encourage people to resettle in less populated areas have met with little success.</span></text>
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<text>CONSTANTINEORAN</text>
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<text><span class="style1">he majority of people of Algeria are now </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">ARAB</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">BERBER</a></span><span class="style1">, or mixed Arab-Berber stock. In the 19th century, French settlements added a large European element to the population. In addition, Italians, Maltese, Greeks, and Spaniards settled in the Oran region. Once 10% of the population, Europeans now account for 1% or less. Most of a small, Arabic-speaking, native Jewish population also left when Algeria achieved independence. More than 1,000,000 Algerians live abroad, chiefly in France. The </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">TUAREG</a></span><span class="style1"> are a nomadic group in the Sahara. Arabic is the official language, but French is the principal foreign language. There are some minority Berber speakers. Islam is the official religion, and about 99% of all Algerians are Muslims, mostly </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">SUNNITES</a></span><span class="style1">. The emergence of a Muslim fundamentalist movement demanding a greater role for religion in this secular state created disturbances in the 1980s, and in 1990, when Islamic fundamentalists made wide voting gains in the first free elections since Algeria gained independence.</span></text>
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<text>ARABBERBERSUNNITESTUAREG</text>
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<text>Cultivable land in Algeria is almost all in the northern Mediterranean zone. Although only about one fifth of the total land area is suitable for agriculture, including pasture, in the coastal areas are rich farming regions. The major natural resources are oil and gas, both found in the Sahara. Oil reserves are substantial, and gas reserves are the fourth highest in the world. Other resources include iron ore, phosphates, mercury, and zinc.</text>
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<text>The vegetation pattern is closely associated with climate, except for localized differences due to soil, elevation, and the availability of water. Three major vegetation zones may be distinguished: the Mediterranean, the semiarid, and the desert. The Mediterranean vegetation cover consists of holm oak, Aleppo pine, cedar, and cork oak, but much of the land is covered with maquis (a scrubby underbrush). The wild olive is characteristic of the drier regions. The semiarid zone is typified by alfalfa grass, associated with esparto and sagebrush. The date palm is the typical oasis tree. The grapevine and the fig, which were brought to the region from other parts of the world, are now distinctive in the landscape as indigenous species. The relatively sparse vegetation does not support a large wildlife population. Species include the gazelle, hare, ibex, Barbary ape, and some birds and reptiles.</text>
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<text>The pattern of climate is generally analogous to the five main topographic divisions. Coastal plains have a Mediterranean climate with an annual average minimum temperature of 11 deg C (52 deg F) and an annual average maximum of 25 deg C (77 deg F). The annual average rainfall, concentrated in the winter months, is about 760 mm (30 in). In the Tell Atlas Mountains temperatures are generally lower, but the extremes are greater. The mean annual range is from 8 deg to 28 deg C (46 deg to 83 deg F). Annual rainfall ranges from 510 mm (20 in) in the east to as much as 1,015 mm (40 in) in the Kabylia region. The intermontane plateau areas are cool and dry with an annual rainfall of about 305 mm (12 in). The Saharan Atlas is a sharp climatic divide, and toward the south temperatures rise rapidly; annual rainfall is about 255 mm (10 in). The Sahara is an almost rainless area, with less than 200 mm (8 in) a year. Temperatures range from an average minimum of 11 deg C (51 deg F) to an average maximum of well of over 38 deg C (100 deg F). Daily extremes are also great. Only about half the surface area of Algeria drains to the sea. Drainage is characterized by short, irregular streams, except in the coastal plain, through which the only important stream, the Cheliff, flows. The plateau region has many interior basins with shallow salt lakes called shatts (or chotts). The Sahara is also an inland drainage area, but stream courses are discontinuous; dry water courses are called wadis.</text>
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<text>Two important mountain ranges, the Tell Atlas and the Saharan Atlas, are the major divide between Mediterranean Algeria and the Sahara. Roughly paralleling the coast, these ranges enclose high plateaus. Algeria has five main topographic zones, all of which run east to west. The narrow alluvial coastal plains and the Sahel Hills are about 140 km (85 mi) wide. To the south, the Tell Atlas rises to a maximum elevation of 2,308 m (7,572 ft). The intermontane plateaus are semiarid and narrow toward the east, ending in the Hodna Mountains. The plateaus have an average elevation of 1,100 m (3,500 ft). To the south in a rugged, dry region are the Saharan Atlas Mountains, which rise to a maximum elevation of 2,236 m (7,336 ft). The fifth region, the Sahara, is a massive desert area of stony wastes, inland basins, rolling sand dunes, and oases. Algeria's most fertile soils are found on the coastal plains and are described locally as Tell soils. Elsewhere in the country, except in mountain pockets, soils are mostly infertile.</text>
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<text><span class="style1">lgeria, in northwest Africa, is part of the region known as the </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">MAGHRIB</a></span><span class="style1">, and is the continent's second largest nation, after Sudan. From its 1,000-km (620-mi) coastline along the Mediterranean Sea it extends southward into the heart of the </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">SAHARA</a></span><span class="style1">, bordering six countries. </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">ALGIERS</a></span><span class="style1">, the capital and leading port, is one of the largest and fastest-growing cities in Africa. Given its geographic location, Algeria has long interacted with African, Asian, and European cultures. The bitter </span><span class="style2"><a href="#" class="group">ALGERIAN WAR</a></span><span class="style1"> (1954-62) that ended French colonial rule has significantly influenced Algeria's national identity. Since gaining independence, Algeria has tried to liberate itself from the economic legacy of colonialism through ambitious development plans financed by the sale of petroleum and natural gas. Its prominent position among Third World nations has enabled it to play a major role in international diplomacy. TITLE: AlgeriaOFFICIAL NAME: Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria LAND. Area: 2,381,741 sq km (919,595 sq mi). Capital and largest city: Algiers (1987 pop., 1,483,000). Elevations: highest--Mount Tahat, 3,003 m (9,852 ft); lowest--50.9 m (167 ft) below sea level, at Melrhir Shatt. PEOPLE. Population (1989 est.): 24,946,073. Density: 10.5 persons per sq km (27.1 per sq mi). Distribution (1989 est.): 43% urban, 67% rural. Annual growth (1989): 3.2%. Official language: Arabic. Major religion: Islam. ECONOMY. GDP (1988 est.): $58.25 billion; $2,450 per capita. Labor distribution (1985): services--29%; agriculture--26%; mining, manufacturing, and public utilities--15%; construction--17%; trade--8%; transportation and communications--5%. Foreign trade (1988): imports--$6.1 billion; exports--$8.1 billion; principal trade partners--France, Netherlands, Czechoslovakia, Italy. Currency: 1 Algerian dinar = 100 centimes. GOVERNMENT. Type: republic. Government leaders (1991): Benjedid Chadli--president; Sid Ahmed Ghozali--prime minister. Legislature: National Assembly. Political subdivisions: 48 wilayat (departments). EDUCATION AND HEALTH. Literacy (1989): 52% of adult population. Universities (1990): 13. Hospital beds (1987): 63,000. Physicians (1987): 17,760. Life expectancy (1989): women--67; men--63. Infant mortality (1989): 73 per 1,000 live births. COMMUNICATIONS. Railroads (1987): 3,761 km (2,337 mi) total. Roads (1986): 81,648 km (50,734 mi) total. Major ports: 8. Major airfields: 5. </span></text>
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<text>ALGERIAN WARALGIERSMAGHRIBSAHARA</text>
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<text>Algeria LAND AND RESOURCES Climate and Drainage Vegetation and Animal Life Resources PEOPLE Demography Education and Health ECONOMIC ACTIVITY Mining and Industry Agriculture Transportation and Trade GOVERNMENT HISTORYBibliography</text>
 (January 1993).iso/Files/Education/A/Algeria HTB 2.0 L1.cpt/Algeria HTB 2.0 L1/BMAP_8749.png){kind=link}
 (January 1993).iso/Files/Education/A/Algeria HTB 2.0 L1.cpt/Algeria HTB 2.0 L1/PATs.png){kind=link}